Global Ocean Development, Let us create the future with hope.

Renewable Energy

2011-04-13T18:51:00.001+09:00

【出展リンク:Ｆｒｏｍ】：http://youtu.be/oTyWeW5MEio

投稿者: actordude07 | 作成日: 2007/11/13

A short video that I made for science when I was In Year 10, Hope you enjoy :)

Thanks so much to those who have watched this video, which has reached over 28,000 views!

カテゴリ:
科学と技術

タグ:
Renewable　Energy　Solar　Geothermal　Wind　Biomass　Tide　Hydroelectric　Green　UK　Science　Oakmeeds

気仙沼市津波 Footage of the tsunami that hit Kesennuma City in Japan

2011-04-07T23:21:00.010+09:00

投稿者: MrDoricar

作成日: 2011/03/27

気仙沼市津波 Footage from the tsunami that hit Kesennuma City Japan

東北地方の港湾における被災状況について（現地調査速報）：国土交通省

2011-03-27T13:30:00.002+09:00

From:
http://www.mlit.go.jp/kowan/kowan_fr5_000027.html

ホーム >> 政策・仕事 >> 港湾 >> 東北地方の港湾における被災状況について（現地調査速報）

｜港湾トップ｜報道発表資料｜関連リンク

東北地方の港湾における被災状況について（現地調査速報）

平成23年3月11日14:46頃に発生した平成23年(2011年)東北地方太平洋沖地震について、独立行政法人港湾空港技術研究所（港空研）及び国土交通省国土技術政策総合研究所（国総研）は、国土交通省からの要請を踏まえ、東北地方の各港湾等に調査団を派遣し、港湾地域における津波・地震による被災状況について調査を行いました。

調査速報の概要は下記ホームページに掲載されています。

港湾空港技術研究所　　　　http://www.pari.go.jp/

国土技術政策総合研究所　http://www.ysk.nilim.go.jp/

●お問い合わせ先（直通）

　　独立行政法人　港湾空港技術研究所

　　　　特別研究官　　戸田　　046-844-5087 企画課　　坂井、黒澤　　046-844-5040

　アジア・太平洋沿岸防災研究センター　　高橋、富田　　　046-844-5052

国土技術政策総合研究所

　　　管理調整部　　池田　 046-844-5002　　箕作　 046-844-5018

国土交通省　〒100－8918 東京都千代田区霞が関2-1-3
（代表電話）03-5253-8111
Copyright© 2008-2010 MLIT Japan. All Rights Reserved.

================================================

From:
http://www.pari.go.jp/material/johoshi_pari/index.html

港湾空港技術研究所　技術情報誌「PARI」

PARI Vol.1　創刊号　２０１０年１０月号

内容

１．Frontline－特集－

津波死者ゼロをめざして大津波から人々を守る技術と対策

２．Front People　－その一歩先へ挑戦する研究者たち

アジア・太平洋沿岸防災研究センター
富田孝史上席研究官
辰巳大介研究官

３．Focus on　－ファシリティーの最前線へ

世界最大級の耐波実験施設「大規模波動地盤総合水路」
津波被害をシミュレーション「STOCシステム」

４．Close up －現場からの報告

世界最大水深の防波堤でギネスに認定！
「人々を津波から守る釜石港湾口防波堤」
http://www.pari.go.jp/material/johoshi_pari/vol1/closeup.pdf

【付記】：

この巨大津波防波堤が今回の東日本大地震時の大津波によって、破壊された。

５．Cross line －国際交流レポート

チリ地震・津波災害の合同調査団を港湾空港技術研究所が派遣

６．Visitors' file

－来訪者の素顔
チリ大使が港湾空港技術研究所を訪問

７．Topics

「TSUNAMI－津波から生き延びるために」関連書籍が出版されました！

このホームページに関するお問い合わせは

webmaster@ipc.pari.go.jpまでお寄せください。

(c)Copyright 2001 The Port and Airport Research Institute No reproduction or republication without permission.cc

================================================

From：
http://www.pari.go.jp/information/20110311/p20110323.html

Press Release 東北地方の港湾における被災状況について(現地調査速報)

平成23年3月23日

独立行政法人　港湾空港技術研究所
国土交通省　国土技術政策総合研究所

東北地方の港湾における被災状況について(現地調査速報)

(平成23年東北地方太平洋沖地震)

平成23年3月11日14:46頃に発生した平成23年(2011年)東北地方太平洋沖地震について、独立行政法人港湾空港技術研究所(港空研)及び国土交通省国土技術政策総合研究所(国総研)は、国土交通省からの要請を踏まえ、東北地方の各港湾等に調査団を派遣し、港湾地域における津波・地震による被災状況について調査を行いました。

調査速報の概要

•マグニチュード9.0の巨大地震により、明治三陸地震・津波(マグニチュード8.5)を上回る巨大な津波が発生し、多くの港湾で津波による浸水や家屋・車両・船舶・木材などの漂流物が衝突、散乱すること等により甚大な被害が発生している。

•釜石港および大船渡港の津波防波堤や八戸港防波堤では防波堤本体(ケーソン)が水没するとともに、港口部が洗掘され大きな被害を受けた。港湾内の上屋や倉庫などの保管施設についても、津波による浸水、船舶や貨物等の漂流物の衝突や堆積により大きな被害が生じている。

•東北沿岸の沖合10～20kmに設置されたGPS波浪計において、沿岸への津波到達10分程度前に、5.6m～6.6m(速報値)の津波を観測した。国土交通省釜石港湾事務所の津波の痕跡から計測される浸水高(8.1m)は、このGPS波浪計の観測データから推測される沿岸部での津波高(約13m)を下回っていた。今後、数値解析等による詳細な検証が必要であるが、津波防波堤により一定の津波防護効果が有ったものと推察される。

•今回調査を行った港湾における岸壁については、地震動による岸壁本体の大規模な損傷はないものの、エプロン舗装面の沈下や陥没等が広範囲で発生している。

•仙台空港においては、滑走路の一部に軽微なクラックが発生しているものの滑走路は概ね健全であり、大型輸送機による救援物資輸送が開始された。耐震性向上のため平成20年度から実施されていた液状化対策工の効果が確認された。

なお、詳細な調査結果については、後日、両研究所のホームページに掲載する予定です。

別紙1：東北地方の港湾における被災状況について(現地調査速報) (PDF/150KB)

別紙2：各港の調査状況について (PDF/608KB)

別紙3：釜石港における津波防波堤の効果(イメージ) (PDF/126KB)

別紙4：東北地方の太平洋沿岸のGPS波浪計で観測した津波波形 (PDF/401KB)

【問い合わせ先】
独立行政法人港湾空港技術研究所

特別研究官戸田（046-844-5087）
企画課坂井、黒澤（046-844-5040）

アジア・太平洋沿岸防災研究センター高橋、富田（046-844-5052C）

国土交通省　国土技術政策総合研究所

日本の発展について、ささやかな♡ヤマト姫♡の★夢と希望

2011-03-22T12:56:00.004+09:00

日本の発展について、ささやかな♡ヤマト姫♡の★夢と希望

２０１１年年３月１１日の東日本大地震によって、引き起こされた未曾有の悲惨な天災と人災的な不全的な政治・行政要因による福島第一原子力発電所の放射能漏れの事故が引き起こされたが、日本の国家経済・産業を存立させる必要不可欠なエネルギー基本・基盤の政策として、今後の原子力発電政策の中で、避けられぬ迫りくる大地震活動期での大地震・大津波の自然天災を避けるために、沿岸を離れた沖合での大型海洋浮体式の原子力発電施設等の検討・研究開発を急ぎ、育てていかねばならないであろう。

沖合の海に浮かぶ海鳥は、大地震や津波等に対しても、抗うことなしで、やり過ごすのである。

柔善く剛を制すのごとくである。

近年の世界的な資源獲得競争・資本・経済的な勢力拡大なる競争【戦争そのような事態】を回避させ、世界の人々のために、国際社会の安寧を創生させる平和的な活動・理念・目的を明確にして、太平洋等の海洋・海面の平和的共存や活用・利用、海洋浮体式原子力発電、海底資源開発、海洋浮体構造物上の太陽光発電等を、世界に先駆けて、総合的な地球規模の開発・研究において、発展を促進させる。

海洋開発に係る新産業の育成・発展に合わせて雇用・就業の新分野・部門の拡大・進展を計り、市民のための公共的な便益を増大させる。

かって、数十年前に、新日本製鉄初代会長永野重雄氏は、日本の国土面積を倍増させる提案をした事がある。

日本列島の東には、果てしなく広がる大きな太平洋がある。

その食料調達においては広い海洋・海面上を利用して、農業、牧畜を展開して、食糧を確保する。

平均水深約３０００メトールを埋め立てる方式。または、大型浮体構造物等で構築する。

水源は太陽光を利用した海水淡水化すれば、無尽蔵にある。

生活に係る動力源は、太陽光や海洋浮体式原子力発電を利用する。

名づけて、ノアの楽園。

日本が平和的な理念・目的を明確にして、このような理想像の楽園を創造するのであるならば、どこの国、どのような民族からも、批判・苦情など生まれる事はない。

生物の種の生育するための生物物理的・生物固有の生理的な機能等・自然のメカニックスが存在しており、その根底には、種の保存のための機能・生理的な生物種を維持する法則が存在している。

マルサスの人口論では、３０年に倍増していくといわれているのである。

人口増大において、現在においてもこのような基本的な原則が根底に存在している。

食料の調達が、人口増大に見合うような、社会構造を構築させていくことは、人知・知恵・技術を生かすならばいくらでも、可能な事なのである。

そのための国家的な方策を構築して、政治・経済活動を世界に発信させてゆく。

なせば、なる。なさねばならぬ何事も。

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

【追記】：浮体式カプセルの共同開発の参加者・投資家求む。：

大津波で家が流されても、家の部屋中に設置できる生命を守る安価な浮体式カプセルの開発・研究

連絡先：　Ｅｍａｉｌ：　matuoka7ocean＠ｇmail.com

                                   matuokaisenokamikaze

＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝

付記１：　

国連の発表では、世界の人口は、２０５０年には、９１億人に増加するとされている。

付記２：　

種々の資源の枯渇が盛んに喧伝され作為的に危機を煽る者たちの無策・無能さを切り捨てることが肝要である。　事前に予測される未来の社会的な事象に対して準備万端で、立ち向かえば、危機などは生じることなどないのである。

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

★ 私のライフワークを主題にしたブログ★：

１．希望のある未来を創ろう

                http:/matuoka1248.blogspot.com/

２．ノアの箱舟を創ろう

　http://matuoka7oceangroupe777noas.blogspot.com/

３．【Gloｂal Ocean Development】 Let us create the future with hope.

OpenID の URL　　：　http://matuoka7oceans.blogspot.com/

【参考リンク１】：　Twitter 　：　http://twitter.com/

未来世界の調和のある安寧な社会の創生のために、正義を構築して行きましょう。社会の偽善を糾弾し正義のある社会構築のための公議公論を広げて打ち立てましょう。

【参考リンク２】：Ｆacebook :

http://www.facebook.com/#!/profile.php?id=100000333557629

【参考リンク３】： MY Zimbio

       http://www.zimbio.com/member/matuokaisenokamikaze

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

２０１１．３．２２

matuokaisenokamikaze

～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～

!!TSUNAMI ROARS ASHORE!! 2011

2011-03-17T06:40:00.000+09:00

【出展リンク】：http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bumtOx2i8yU

投稿者: DAILYNEWSANDNATURE

作成日: 2011/03/13

Japan's NHK television network shows video of the tsunami swallowing towns and farmland along coastal Japan.

カテゴリ:
ニュースと政治

タグ:
Before and afte rimages of quake zone nightmare LIVEVIDEO:
M-7.9 EARTHQUAKE ROCKS JAPAN Massive8.9-magnitude hits Japan 2011 TSUNAMI WARNINGS Tokyo

Japan Earthquake: Helicopter aerial view video of giant tsunami waves

2011-03-14T05:12:00.009+09:00

【出展リンク】：http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w3AdFjklR50

投稿者: RussiaToday | 作成日: 2011/03/11

Follow latest updates at http://twitter.com/rt_com and http://www.facebook.com/RTnews
A ferocious tsunami spawned by one of the largest earthquakes on record slammed Japan's eastern coast on Friday, killing hundreds of people as it swept away ships, cars and homes while widespread fires burned out of control. Police said 200 to 300 bodies were found in the northeastern coastal city of Sendai, the city in Miyagi prefecture, or state, closest to the epicentre. Another 137 were confirmed killed, with 531 people missing. Police also said 544 people were injured.
RT on Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/RTnews
RT on Twitter: http://twitter.com/RT_com

カテゴリ:
ニュースと政治

タグ:
RT Japan earthquakeJapan earthquakeJapan tsunamiearthquake caught on tapevideoJapan videoJapan quakeRToil refinery Japan8.9 earthquakeaustralia tsunamiearthquake todayjapan earthquake 2011japan 11 march 2011Tokyo earthquakejapan earthquake todaywest coast tsunami warningtokyo earthquake todayHawaii earthquake tsunami

First Post-Oil Spill Deepwater Drilling Permit Approved

2011-03-02T03:59:00.002+09:00

From：

http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/2004502/first_postoil_spill_deepwater_drilling_permit_approved/index.html

First Post-Oil Spill Deepwater Drilling Permit Approved

Posted on: Tuesday, 1 March 2011, 08:35 CST

A Houston-based energy company has been awarded a permit for deepwater drilling in the Gulf of Mexico--the first handed out by the US government since the lifting of a moratorium imposed in the wake of the Deepwater Horizon disaster, various media outlets are reporting.

Noble Energy had applied for a permit to bypass for a well located some 70 miles southeast of Venice, Louisiana, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE) said in a Monday press release.

According to the Associated Press (AP), the company had begun drilling on the well just four days before the explosion onboard the BP-leased oil rig, which resulted in 11 deaths and would ultimately lead to one of the largest environmental disasters of its kind.

"This permit represents a significant milestone for us and for the offshore oil and gas industry, and is an important step towards safely developing deepwater energy supplies offshore," BOEMRE Director Michael R. Bromwich said in a statement.
"This permit was issued for one simple reason: the operator successfully demonstrated that it can drill its deepwater well safely and that it is capable of containing a subsea blowout if it were to occur," he added. "We expect further deepwater permits to be approved in coming weeks and months based on the same process that led to the approval of this permit."

Noble Energy "spent two months drilling to a depth of 13,585 feet before it was forced to plug the well under the moratorium," Jennifer A. Dlouhy of the Houston Chronicle reported Monday. "The bypass drilling in 6,500 feet of water is meant to get around the plugs in the original well."

Dlouhy added that drilling was expected to start in late March and reach a target depth of 19,000 feet.

Bromwich told AFP reporters that there were currently seven permits pending, and that all applications would be judged on "a well-by-well basis."

Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal told the French news agency that the awarding of the permit was a "good first step," but added that government officials "must quickly get to a level of issuing permits that represents a critical mass so thousands of oil and gas industry workers can get back to work fueling America again."

---

On the Net:

Noble Energy

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE)

Source: RedOrbit Staff & Wire Reports

More News in this Category

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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2011-03-02T00:15:00.000+09:00

【出展リンク】：
From：
http://www.solarnovus.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2316:floating-solar-panels&catid=52:applications-tech-research&Itemid=247

Floating Solar Panels - Solar Novus Today

Floating Solar Panels

Written by Jane Morrill
28 February 2011

Developed by a Franco-Israeli partnership, this new solar power technology introduces a new paradigm in energy production.
The project is the result of collaboration between Solaris Synergy from Israel and the EDF Group from France. Eureka provided the supporting platform that allowed to enhance the companies’ partnership. After receiving the Eureka label, the project, called “Aquasun,” also found support from the Israeli Ministry of Industry, Trade and Labor. “We are very pleased with the collaborative dimension of the project,” says Dr. Elyakim Kassel, coordinator of the Aquasun project and business development manager at Solaris Synergy.

Soon after the design phase was over, at the end of March 2010, the fabrication of a prototype began and the team is aiming to launch the implementation phase in September 2011. The tests will take place at Cadarache in Bouches-du-Rhône, Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur, France. The site has a privileged position on the French electric grid and is close to a local hydro-electric facility providing the water surface to be used to install the system. It will operate on-site for a period of nine months, while assessing the system’s performance and productivity through seasonal changes and various water levels. The research team members believe that by June 2012 they will have all the information they need to bring the technology to market.

The project team identified the almost untouched potential of solar installations on industrial water basins already in use for other purposes. This ensures that the new solar plants will not have a negative impact on natural landscapes.

After solving the question of space, the team took on the problem of cost. The developers were able to reduce the costs linked to the implementation of the technology in two ways:

• First, they reduced the quantity of solar cells used, thanks to optical mirrors that concentrate the sun, while keeping steady the amount of power produced.

• Second, the team implemented a creative cooling system using the water on which the solar panels are floating.

Thanks to this efficient cooling method, the PV system can use silicon solar cells, which tend to experience overheating problems and need to be cooled in order to allow the system to work correctly. The particular type of solar cell used also allows a higher efficiency than usual, achieving both reliability and cost-reduction.

Still for the purpose of making the technology efficient and ready to market, the system is designed in such way that it is possible to assemble as many identical modules on a solar platform as needed for the power rating desired. Each module produces a standard amount of 200 kilowatts (kW) of electricity, and more power can be achieved by simply adding more modules.

The team also worked on the environmental impact of the technology. The floating panels work as a breathing surface through which oxygen can penetrate to the water. This feature ensures that sufficient oxygen will maintain the underwater life of plants and animals. Dr. Kassel adds, “One of the implementation phase’s goals is to closely monitor the possible effects of this new technology on the environment with the help of specialists [and] a preliminary check shows no detrimental environmental impact on water quality, flora or fauna. Our choices of materials were always made with this [environmental] concern in mind.”

The project was featured at the 4th International Eilat-Eilot Renewable Energy Conference last week on 22-24 February 2011 in Eilat, Israel, giving the public the opportunity to observe how the floating concentrated PV system functioned. According to Yossi Fisher, Solaris Synergy’s chief executive officer, the installation in Eilat was a milestone.

Dr. Kassel sees a final benefit to his project: “Today, each country must consider the best resources it has … to produce clean energy. For example, hydroelectric power is good where there are waterfalls, geothermic is productive for countries with thermal springs and solar power is very efficient where there is sun. Our system could be of great use in places that are exposed to sun, but [don't] necessarily have sufficient natural water. Even dry countries, such as Israel or the North African countries, have industrial waters that are not rain-dependent. This fact makes the floating solar power plant a reliable [way] for them to produce renewable energy.”

Written by Jane Morrill, Special Projects Editor

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SunPower Announces Agreement to Acquire SunRay

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Nur Energie joins the Desertec Industrial Initiative

Kyocera Solar Modules Supply 40 MW at Large-Scale Solar Power Plants in Spain

Abengoa Solar Begins Commercial Operation of the Company’s First 50-Megawatt Parabolic Trough Plant

Labels: CSP, France, PV Cells & Modules, Optics & Mirrors, CPV, Solar Plants, Europe, Applications, Silicon, Israel, Shows & Conferences, Middle East

Copyright © 2011 Novus Media Today, LLC. All rights reserved.

The Deepwater Horizon Accident: What Happened and Why?

2010-12-07T09:45:00.004+09:00

From：http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aN2TIWomahQ

無料でダウンロード
Stanford University
2010年11月22日

November 16, 2010 - Roland Horne begins the first of a series of two lectures with an overview of what led to the explosion on the Deepwater Horizon offshore drilling rig on April 20, 2010, and the subsequent oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, the largest accidental marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry.

Roland Horne is the Thomas Davies Barrow Professor in the Department of Energy Resources Engineering in the School of Earth Sciences.

Stanford University:
http://www.stanford.edu/

School of Earth Sciences:
http://www.earthsci.stanford.edu/

Center For Ocean Solutions:
http://www.centerforoceansolutions.org/

Woods Institute for the Environment at Stanford:
http://woods.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/index.php

Precourt Institute for Energy at Stanford:
http://pie.stanford.edu/

Stanford University Channel on YouTube:
http://www.youtube.com/stanford

カテゴリ:
教育
タグ:
Environment Earth Science Petroleum Engineering Marine Life Ecological Disaster Ecology Biology
Gulf of Mexico Gas Production Oil Rigexplorationenergy resource leak BP spill investigation
off-shore drilling energy hydrocarbon Riser

Wave Energy

2010-12-06T19:54:00.000+09:00

zavatone

2007年11月18日

An NBC report on renewable energy focusing on energy generation from currents, tides and waves.

カテゴリ:

科学と技術

タグ:

Energy Environmental renewable

"Here comes the wind" Cape Wind Hearings

2010-11-22T23:36:00.004+09:00

"Here comes the wind" Cape Wind Hearings

【出展リンク】：http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l7EoPCZIpS4

JFK - We choose to go to the Moon, full length

2010-11-22T08:24:00.000+09:00

【出展リンク】：http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ouRbkBAOGEw

benwl | 2008年08月27日 | 高評価 899 人、低評価 21 人
"We choose to go to the Moon"

As we sit at the precipice of a new era of exploration, I thought it appropriate to revisit the original inspiration and rationale for the first lunar exploration program as so eloquently stated by John F. Kennedy. The original speech by JFK was held in Houston, TX at the Rice Stadium in the fall of 1962.

"Many years ago the great British explorer George Mallory, who was to die on Mount Everest, was asked why did he want to climb it. He said, 'Because it is there.' Well, space is there, and we're going to climb it, and the moon and the planets are there, and new hopes for knowledge and peace are there. And, therefore, as we set sail we ask God's blessing on the most hazardous and dangerous and greatest adventure on which man has ever embarked."

-John F. Kennedy, Rice University, Sept. 12, 1962

http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+...

http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/We_choo...

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/con...

www.rice.edu

www.nasa.gov

カテゴリ:
科学と技術

評価の高いコメント
markusgp
3 週間前 10 Obama is a joke compare to him

markusgp 3 週間前 10 mrstucko
6 日前 4 Last time I saw Kennedy was when him and Castro were mowing down zombies in Black Ops :)

Para Ti Amiga Mia

2010-11-18T10:51:00.000+09:00

【出展リンク】：

The website for the offshore oil and gas industry

2010-11-10T19:24:00.000+09:00

【出展リンク】：

http://www.offshore-technology.com/contractors/

The website for the offshore oil and gas industry

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Deepwater Gulf of Mexico oil reserves and production

2010-11-07T10:40:00.360+09:00

From：
http://www.eoearth.org/articles/view/158852/?topic=49463

Deepwater Gulf of Mexico oil reserves and production

The Gulf of Mexico is peppered with thousands of oil platforms, and their frequency surprises those of us who have never been to this vast body of water that is so heavily utilized by the oil and gas industry. Credit: NOAA

Published: September 24, 2010, 12:00 am

Edited: December 10, 2010, 8:27 am

Lead Author: Mallory Nomack

Topics: Offshore Petroleum, Gulf of Mexico

***EXCERPT FROM MMS REPORT, Deepwater Gulf of Mexico 2009: Interim Report of 2008 Highlights***

Table of Contents

1 Background

1.1 Definitions

1.2 Expanding Frontier

1.3 Ultra-Deepwater Drilling and Discoveries (greater than 5,000 FT/1,524 M)

1.4 Challenges and Rewards

2 Reserves and Production

2.1 Reserves and Discoveries

2.2 Production Trends

2.3 Production Rates

Background

Definitions

For purposes of this article, deep water is defined as water depths greater than or equal to 1,000 ft (305 m), and ultra-deep water is defined as water depths greater than or equal to 5,000 ft (1,524 m). A few other definitions are useful at this point:

Proved Reserves are those quantities of hydrocarbons that can be estimated with reasonable certainty to be commercially recoverable from known reservoirs. These reserves have been drilled and evaluated and are generally in a producing or soon-to-be producing field.

Unproved Reserves can be estimated with some certainty (drilled and evaluated) to be potentially recoverable, but there is as yet no commitment to develop the field.

Known Resources refer to discovered resources (hydrocarbons whose location and quantity are known or estimated from specific geologic evidence) that have less geologic certainty and a lower probability of production than the Unproved Reserves category.

Industry-Announced Discoveries refer to oil and gas accumulations that were announced by a company or otherwise listed in industry publications. These discoveries may or may not have been evaluated by the Minerals Management Service (MMS) and the reliability of estimates can vary widely.

Field is defined as an area consisting of a single reservoir or multiple reservoirs grouped on, or related to, the same general geologic structural feature and/or stratigraphic trapping condition. There may be two or more reservoirs in a field that are separated vertically by intervening impervious strata or laterally by local geologic barriers or both.

Expanding Frontier

In the late 1990s, a new era for the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) had just begun with intense interest in the oil and gas potential of the deepwater areas. At that time, there were favorable economics, recent deepwater discoveries, and significant leasing spurred on by the Deep Water Royalty Relief Act (DWRRA; 43 U.S.C. §1337). Historically, deepwater production began in 1979 with Shell’s Cognac Field, but it took another 5 years before the next deepwater field (ExxonMobil’s Lena Field) came online. Both developments relied on extending the limits of platform technology used to develop the GOM shallow-water areas.

Fig. 1: Deepwater discoveries by year. Credit: BOEMRE

Since then, deepwater exploration and production technology has tremendously advanced. In February 1997, there were 17 producing deepwater projects, up from only 6 at the end of 1992. Since then, industry has been rapidly advancing into deep water, and many of the anticipated fields have begun production. At the end of 2008, there were 141 producing projects in the deepwater GOM, up from 130 at the end of 2007.

Over the last 15 or so years, leasing, drilling, and production moved steadily into deeper waters. There are approximately 7,310 active leases in the U.S. GOM, 58 percent of which are in deep water. (Note that lease statuses may change daily, so the current number of active leases is an approximation.) Contrast this to approximately 5,600 active GOM leasesin 1992, only 27 percent of which were in deep water. There was a maximum of 31 rigs drilling in deep water in 2008, compared with only 3 rigs in 1992. Likewise, deepwater oil production rose about 786 percent and deepwater gas production increased about 1,067 percent from 1992 to 2007. Production from seven deepwater fields began in 2008, including Thunder Horse, the largest daily producer in the GOM.

Ultra-Deepwater Drilling and Discoveries (greater than 5,000 FT/1,524 M)

In 1986, the first discovery in the GOM in water depths greater than 5,000 ft (1,524 m) occurred with Mensa. Since that time, there have been 64 additional discoveries in the ultra-deep provinces of the Gulf. The production from 13 of these discoveries is associated with the Independence Hub natural gas processing facility. Another 15 of the discoveries are associated with the Lower Tertiary trend.

Fig. 2: Estimated volume of proved deepwater fields. Credit: BOEMRE

In 2007, MMS reported a record number of 15 rigs drilling for oil and gas in water depths of 5,000 ft (1,524 m) or more in the GOM. Although this record has not yet been surpassed, MMS expects increased drilling activities in ultra-deep water, with 15 newbuild mobile offshore drilling units (MODU’s) contracted for delivery to the GOM in 2009 through 2011. The MMS expects 2 new drillships and 6 new semisubmersible drilling rigs in 2009, 5 new drillships and 1 semisubmersible drilling rig in 2010, and 1 new semisubmersible drilling rig in 2011. There are also 4 semisubmersible rigs that are currently being upgraded to drill in ultra-deep water that are contracted for delivery to the GOM in 2009 and 2010. The newbuild Stena DrillMAX I drillship and the Seadrill West Sirius semisubmersible drilling rig were delivered to the GOM in 2008. All of the newbuild MODU’s are being built with dynamic positioning systems and will not have to be moored to the seafloor. These newbuild MODU’s will be capable of drilling in water depths from 7,500 to 12,000 ft (2,286 to 3,658 m) and will be capable of drilling wells from 30,000 to 40,000 ft (9,144 to 12,192 m) below the seafloor. There are several drilling contractors that have MODU’s in construction for delivery in 2010 and 2011 that are not yet contracted with operators, and some of these MODU’s are expected to operate in the GOM under future contracts.

Challenges and Rewards

Significant challenges exist in deep water in addition to environmental considerations. Deepwater operations are very expensive and often require significant amounts of time between initial exploration and first production. Despite these challenges, operators often reap great rewards. Figure 1 shows the history of discoveries in the deepwater GOM. There was a shift toward deeper water over time, and the number of deepwater discoveries continues at a steady pace.

In addition to the significant number of deepwater discoveries, the flow rates of deepwater wells and the field sizes of deepwater discoveries are often quite large. These factors are critical to the economic success of deepwater development. Figure 2 illustrates the estimated sizes and locations of 127 proved deepwater fields. In addition to their large sizes, the fields have a wide geographic distribution and range in geologic age from Pleistocene through Paleocene.

Fig. 3: Current, potential, and future hub facilities.

Figure 3 illustrates existing and potential hubs for deepwater production. For purposes of this article, deepwater hubs are defined as surface structures that host production from one or more subsea projects. These hubs represent the first location where subsea production comes to the surface, and the hubs are the connection point to the existing pipeline infrastructure. Note that potential hubs are moving into deeper waters, expanding the infrastructure and facilitating additional development in the ultra-deepwater frontier.
Credit: BOEMRE Figure 3 illustrates existing and potential hubs for deepwater production. For purposes of this article, deepwater hubs are defined as surface structures that host production from one or more subsea projects. These hubs represent the first location where subsea production comes to the surface, and the hubs are the connection point to the existing pipeline infrastructure. Note that potential hubs are moving into deeper waters, expanding the infrastructure and facilitating additional development in the ultra-deepwater frontier.

Reserves and Production

Reserves and Discoveries

Figure 4 shows the number of deepwater discoveries each year since 1975. Since 1975 there have been at least 285 deepwater discoveries in the GOM, of which 127 have become proved fields, accounting for 11.060 BBOE of proved reserves. In an attempt to capture the impact of the deepwater exploratory successes, in addition to MMS proved reserves, unproved reserves, and resource estimates, Figure 4 also includes publicly-available, industry-announced discoveries (IAD’s). The IAD volumes contain considerable uncertainty, are based on limited drilling, include numerous assumptions, and have not been confirmed by independent MMS analyses. They do, however, illustrate recent activity better than using only MMS-proved reserve numbers.

Fig. 4: Number and volume of deepwater discoveries. Volumes include MMS reserves, MMS resources, and industry announced discoveries. Credit: BOEMRE

There is often a significant lag between a successful exploration well and its hydrocarbons being produced. The success of an exploration well may remain concealed from the public for several years until the operator requests a “Determination of Well Producibility” from MMS. A successful MMS determination then “qualifies” the lease as producible and the discovery is placed in a field. The discovery date of that field is then defined as the total depth date of the field’s first well that encountered significant hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbon reserves are still considered unproved until it is clear that the field will go on production. Then the reserves move into MMS’s proved category.

The increase in proved reserves in 1989 is partially a result of the Mars-Ursa discoveries. Likewise, the increase in 1999 is partially a result of the Thunder Horse discovery. These two fields, located in Mississippi Canyon, represent two of the largest in the GOM based on proved barrels of oil equivalent (BOE) reserves. The apparent decline of proved reserve additions in recent years is caused by the lag between discovery and development. The increase of unproved reserves, resources, and IAD’s in 2006 is partially a result of the Kaskida discovery located in Keathley Canyon. In the last 2 years, oil and gas volumes added to the GOM decreased sharply from those in 2006. This is due in part to the fact that MMS has not completed volumetric estimates for 2007 and 2008 discoveries in deep water.

Production Trends

Leasing, drilling, and discoveries all stepped into deeper waters with time. Production, the final piece in the puzzle, is no exception. In 2007, approximately 70 percent of the GOM’s oil production and 36 percent of its natural gas were from wells in 1,000 ft (305 m) of water or greater. Figure 5 illustrates deepwater projects that began production in 2007 and 2008 and those expected to commence production in the next 5 years. Seven deepwater projects went online in 2008: Bass Lite and Neptune in Atwater Valley; and Blind Faith, Mississippi Canyon Block 161, Raton, Thunder Horse, and Valley Forge in Mississippi Canyon. In addition to the projects displayed on Figure 5, more are likely to come online in the next few years but are not shown because operators have not yet announced their plans.

Fig. 5: Deepwater projects that began production in 2007 and 2008 and those expected to begin production by yearend 2013. Credit: BOEMRE

The GOM supplied approximately 25 percent of the Nation’s domestic oil and 14 percent of the Nation’s domestic gas production in 2007. A significant portion (approximately 18%) of the oil volume came from the deepwater GOM. Nine projects tied back to the Independence Hub facility came online from July through October of 2007. When at peak capacity, production from the hub will add 1 Bcf/d, representing over 10 percent of the gas production from the total GOM.

Shallow-water oil production rose rapidly in the 1960’s, peaked in 1971, and has undergone cycles of increase and decline since then. Since 1997, the shallow-water GOM oil production has steadily declined and, at the end of 2006, was at its lowest level since 1965. It has, however, begun to increase in 2007. From 1995 through 2003, deepwater oil production experienced a dramatic increase similar to that seen in the shallow-water GOM during the 1960’s, offsetting declines in shallow-water oil production. In fact, beginning in 2000, more oil has been produced from the deepwater areas of the GOM than from shallow waters. Starting in 2003, deepwater oil production basically leveled off. Shallow-water gas production rose sharply throughout the 1960’s and 1970’s, and then remained relatively stable over the next 17 years before declining steadily from 1997 through 2007. At the same time shallow-water gas production started to decline in 1997, deepwater gas production began to increase, helping to offset the declines from shallow water. Gas production from deep water has, however, declined slightly from 2003 through 2007.

Production Rates

Figures 6a and 6b compare maximum historic daily production rates for each lease in the GOM (i.e., the well with the highest historic production rate is shown for each lease). These maps show that many deepwater fields produce at some of the highest rates encountered in the GOM. Figure 6a also shows that maximum oil rates were significantly higher off the southeast Louisiana coast than off the Texas coast. Figure 6b illustrates the high deepwater gas production rates relative to the rest of the GOM. The relatively high gas rates from fields denoted with an asterisk are tied back to the Independence Hub facility. The hub’s 1 Bcf/d capacity accounts for over 10 percent of the total gas production from the GOM. Note also the excellent production rates from the Norphlet trend (off the Alabama coast) and the Corsair trend (off the Texas coast).

Fig 6a: Maximum historic oil well production rates. Credit: BOEMRE

Fig 6b: Maximum historic gas well production rates. Credit: BOEMRE

Citation

Mallory Nomack (Lead Author);BOEMRE (Content Source);Cutler Cleveland (Topic Editor) "Deepwater Gulf of Mexico oil reserves and production". In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First published in the Encyclopedia of Earth September 24, 2010; Last revised Date September 25, 2010; Retrieved November 6, 2010

The Author

Mallory Nomack is currently a student at Boston University pursuing a combined Bachelor's/Master's degree in Energy and Environmental Analysis in the Department of Geography and Environment. Her coursework has included Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Environmental Modeling, Remote Sensing, and Ecology, among others. She has been involved in a number of research projects throughout her time at BU, including a statistical analysis of the drivers of Amazon deforestation in favor of cattle pa ... (Full Bio)
<http://www.eoearth.org/articles/view/158852/?topic=49463>

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United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 1982

2010-11-07T10:25:00.001+09:00

【出展リンク】：

http://www.eoearth.org/article/United_Nations_Convention_on_Law_of_the_Sea_(UNCLOS),_1982#gen0

United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 1982

Published: June 22, 2010, 12:00 am

Edited: September 10, 2010, 9:10 pm

Lead Author: Daniel J. Hollis

Contributing Author: Tatjana Rosen

Topics: Oceans, International Environmental Issues, Environmental Law, Oil and Society

Rate: 12345This article has been reviewed by the following Topic Editor: Dawn Wright

Table of Contents

1 Introduction

2 Historical Background

2.1 UNCLOS I

2.2 UNCLOS II

3 UNCLOS III

3.1 Divisions of Ocean Areas

3.1.1 Baselines

3.1.2 Internal Waters

3.1.3 Territorial Sea

3.1.4 Contiguous Zone

3.1.5 Exclusive Economic Zone

3.1.6 Continental Shelf Cross sectional map of a continental shelf.

3.1.7 High Seas Map illustrating the high seas. All areas in blue are considered part of the high seas and are not subject to national appropriation.

3.1.8 The Area

3.2 Agencies Created by UNCLOS

3.2.1 Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf

3.2.2 International Seabed Authority Logo for the International Seabed Authority, 'the Authority'

3.2.2.1 The Assembly

3.2.2.2 The Council

3.2.2.3 The Secretariat

3.2.3 The Enterprise

3.2.4 International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea

3.3 Environmental Considerations

3.3.1 Pollution Prevention (Generally)

3.3.2 Dumping at Sea

3.3.3 Fishing Rights

3.3.3.1 In the EEZ

3.3.3.2 On the High Seas

3.3.4 Marine Mammals

3.3.5 Biodiversity

3.3.6 Land Based Pollution

3.3.7 Atmospheric Based Pollution

3.3.8 Pollution from Ships

3.4 Enforcement

3.4.1 Enforcement by the Flag Nation

3.4.2 Enforcement by Port Nations

3.4.3 Enforcement by Coastal Nations (Not Acting as Port Nations)

3.4.4 General Provisions Regarding Enforcement

3.5 Scientific Explortation

3.6 Present Status and United States Interpretation

3.7 Criticisms

4 References

5 Further Reading

Introduction

The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is the most comprehensive attempt at creating a unified regime for governance of the rights of nations with respect to the world's oceans. The treaty addresses a number of topics including navigational rights, economic rights, pollution of the seas, conservation of marine life, scientific exploration, piracy, and more. The treaty, one of the longest in history, is comprised of 320 articles and 9 annexes, representing the codification of customary international law and its progressive development.

Historical Background

Since humanity first set forth upon the seas, the issue of sovereign control over the oceans has been an ongoing concern. Prior to the 20th century, the oceans had been subject to the freedom of the seas doctrine. This principle, adopted in the 17th century, limited national rights and jurisdiction over a narrow band of water along a nations coast, the rest of the sea being free to all and belonging to none. Nearly a century later, the "cannon-shot" rule became the basis for determining how much of the adjacent oceans were under the jurisdiction of a nation. The cannon-shot rule set forth that a nation controlled a territorial sea as far as a projectile could be fired from a cannon based on shore. In the 18th century this range was approximate three nautical miles. As time progressed, three miles became the widely accepted range for the territorial sea.[1]

Due to the slow pace of technological developments prior to the Industrial Revolution, these simple rules provided effective governance of the world's oceans. With the technological developments of the mid-19th and early-20th centuries, however, not only did ships become more powerful, but technology allowed humanity to exploit ocean resources that had never before been envisioned. Fishermen, once limited to areas near their own coasts, were now equipped with vessels that could allow them to stay at sea for months at a time and capture fish harvests that were far from their native waters. Virtually unrestrained, fleets from around the world traveled to areas rich in fish-stocks. The lack of restraint on the part of these fishermen resulted in fish stocks around the world being depleted without regard to the stability of their numbers.[2]

Evolving technology also allowed for the exploitation of previously inaccessible off-shore resources, most notably oil (but also diamonds, gravel, and precious metals). To illustrate the rapidity of these developments, in 1947 off-shore oil production in the Gulf of Mexico was still less than 1 million tons. By 1954, production had grown close to 400 million tons.[3] As a matter of perspective, just in the Gulf of Mexico, the United States alone currently produces 218,192 tons daily, for a total of 79.6 million tons annually, reflecting a steadily decreasing trend that began in the 1970's.[4]

In order to protect local resources, be they biological or mineral, nations began expanding their claims of sovereignty beyond the traditional 3 mile limit. The first nation to challenge the long-standing freedom of the seas doctrine was the United States. On September 28, 1945, President Harry S. Truman signed what has become commonly known as the Truman Proclamation. The proclamation set a claim of sovereignty by the United States to the outer continental shelf (OCS) and the resources therein as well as establishing the right of the U.S. to establish conservations zones "in areas of the high seas contiguous to the coasts of the United States."[5] While recognizing some limited sovereignty over an expanded region of the sea, the proclamation was careful to stipulate that the new US policy did not affect "the right [of] free and unimpeded navigation."[6]

After the United States expanded its claim, it was not long before other nations followed suit. By 1950, Argentina was actively claiming its continental shelf as well as the water column above it, Ecuador, Chile, and Peru were asserting rights over a 200-mile zone in order to protect its biological resources from foreign fleets, and a spate of Arab and Eastern European nations were laying claim to a 12-mile territorial sea. There was a growing understanding, however, that such a fractured regime could not continue.[7]

UNCLOS I

Recognizing the conflicts that were resulting from the current regime, the General Assembly adopted resolution 1105 (XI), which called for the convening of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in Geneva in 1858. Eighty-six nations participated (now commonly referred to as UNCLOS I). The meeting produced four separate conventions [8]: 1) the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone (established sovereignty rights and rights of passage through the territorial sea, established the Contiguous Zone to extend 12 nautical miles from the baselines, but failed to set standards of limits on the territorial sea);[9] 2) the Convention on the High Seas (established access for landlocked nations, expounded on the concept of "flag state," outlawed the transport of slaves, covered piracy, established safety and rescue protocols, established a national duty to prevent pollution, and established rights to laying of undersea cables and pipelines);[10] 3) the Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas (established the right of coastal nations to protect living ocean resources, required nations whose fleets leave their territorial sea to establish conservation measures, and established measures for dispute resolution);[11] 4) and the Convention on the Continental Shelf (established the regime governing the superjacent waters and airspace, the laying and maintenance of submarine cables or pipelines, the regime governing navigation, fishing, scientific research and the coastal nation's competence in these areas, delimitation, and tunneling).[12] The Convention also produced an Optional Protocol of Signature Concerning the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes (provides for the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice, or for submission of the dispute to arbitration or conciliation).[13] While UNCLOS I saw a significant development in the international legal regime governing the oceans, there were still many issues left unsettled.

UNCLOS II

In an attempt to deal with the issues that remained unresolved after UNCLOS I, the General Assembly called for a second United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (now commonly referred to as UNCLOS II). The parties met for just over a month in early 1960 with the objective of settling the question on the breadth of the territorial seas and fishery limits. While the conference adopted two resolutions, the parties were unable to come to consensus on the issues at hand.[14]

UNCLOS III

Frustrated by the continuing inconsistency in the ocean governance regime, Malta's ambassador to the United Nations, Arvid Pardo, called upon the General Assembly to take action and called for "an effective international regime over the seabed and the ocean floor," that clearly defined national jurisdiction.[15] One month later, the General Assembly adopted resolution 2467 A (XXIII) and resolution 2750 C (XXV), which created the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction and called for the convening of a third Law of the Sea meeting to be held in 1973.[16] The deliberations lasted for nine years, saw the participation of 160 nations, and concluded in 1982 with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which is now commonly referred to as simply "UNCLOS" or the Law of the Sea Treaty.[17] UNCLOS is one of the largest, and likely one of the most important, legal agreements in history. The treaty contains 320 articles and 9 annexes. It synthesizes and builds upon the agreements that were developed at the first conference (see UNCLOS I above). The agreement addresses a myriad of issues including navigational rights of ships and aircraft, limits on the extension of national sovereignty over the oceans, environmental protection of the oceans, conservation of living resources and mining rights.

While UNCLOS was first signed in December of 1982, the agreement did not come into force until November of 1994, a period of nearly 12 years.[18] UNCLOS required 60 signatures for ratification and could only enter into force one year after the final nation had ratified or acceded to the treaty.[19] The main reason many nations took so long to sign the treaty is because of Article 309, which prohibits nations from taking out reservations to any part of a treaty. A reservation is a statement made by a nation when accepting a treaty, whereby it excludes or modifies the legal effect of certain provisions of a treaty as those terms apply to the nation accepting the treaty.[20] The inability of a nation to take out reservations to particular terms of the treaty caused many nations to hesitate. UNCLOS represented a significant number of compromises and some of the terms of the agreement did not sit well with various nations. However, in order to establish a unified doctrine of the law of the sea, UNCLOS necessarily had to prevent reservations or risk maintaining a fractured regime.

Divisions of Ocean Areas

One of the most powerful features of UNCLOS is that it settled the question of the extent of national sovereignty over the oceans and seabed. Parts II, V, VI, and VII establish the various regions of the oceans, who has sovereignty over each, and to what degree. The following sections explain both how the maritime regions are divided and the sovereign powers that nations may exercise over each region.

Baselines

Diagram of the various regions of the ocean over which a State may exercise sovereignty. The baseline is the boundary from which a nation may begin measurements to determine the portion of the adjacent oceans or continental shelf over which it may exercise sovereignty. Except in some special cases, the baseline is the low-water line along the coast.[21] Detailed explanations of how baselines are determined are provided in Articles 5-7 and 9-14. Special rules have been established for determining the baselines of archipelagic nations (nations that consist of a number of small islands such as the Philippines) and can be found in Article 47.

Internal Waters

Internal waters are those that are contained on the landward side of the baseline.[22] These waters fall under the exclusive sovereignty of the nation in which they are contained.

Territorial Sea

Article 3 of UNCLOS declares that a nation may establish a territorial sea that extends up to 12 nautical miles from the baselines. Within the territorial sea, a nation has exclusive sovereignty over the water, seabed, and airspace.[23] The treaty establishes that all nations have the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea of another nation and that, outside certain conditions, the nation laying claim to the territorial sea cannot hamper innocent passage of a foreign vessel.[24] UNCLOS adopted the basic concepts of the territorial sea and the right of innocent passage that had been codified in the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone, but the new treaty went a step further by establishing the limits of a nation's territorial sea.

By the late 1960's many nations recognized a 12-mile limit to the territorial sea. At the start of the UNCLOS, only twenty-five nations maintained the traditional claim of 3 nautical miles. Sixty-six nations were claiming 12 nautical miles, fifteen nations claimed between 4 and 10 nautical miles, and eight nations were claiming an astounding 200 nautical miles. Smaller nations, including those without large navies or merchant fleets, favored a larger territorial sea in order to protect their coastal waters from infringements by more powerful nations. The world's major naval and maritime powers, however, pressed for the 3-mile rule because the 12-mile rule would have placed over 100 straits used for international navigation under the exclusive sovereignty of other nations. Some of these included the Strait of Gibraltar (the only open access to the Mediterranean), the Strait of Hormuz (the only passage to the oil-producing Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman nations), and the Strait of Malacca (the main route connecting the Pacific and Indian Oceans).[25]

Remembering that the Cold War was still ongoing during the Convention, smaller nations were particularly concerned about the possibility of threats to their national security posed by warships of foreign nations or even the possibility of becoming embroiled in the conflicts of foreign powers. In an attempted compromise, the small nations offered the larger maritime powers the right of innocent passage, however the maritime powers were not satisfied with this offer. The problem, in the view of the great powers, was that restrictions to innocent passage would prohibit covert movements of vessels (such as submarines) and did not guarantee overflight rights, thereby creating a security risk.[26]

In the end, the parties came together to form a compromise known as "transit passage." Applied specifically to straits that would otherwise fall within the territorial sea of a nation, transit passage applies to straits used for international navigation between one part of the high seas to another and allows for "navigation and overflight solely for the purpose of continuous and expeditious transit of [a] strait...."[27] In all other ways aside transit passage, the waters of a strait still remain the territorial sea of the adjacent nation.[28]

Contiguous Zone

The Contiguous Zone is a region of the seas measured from the baseline to a distance of 24 nautical miles. Within this region, a nation may exercise the control necessary to prevent the infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea, and punish infringement of those laws and regulations committed within its territory or territorial sea.[29]

Exclusive Economic Zone

The Exclusive Economic Zone or "EEZ" is a region that stretches a distance of no more than 200 nautical miles from a nation's baselines.[30] Generally, the rules regarding the High Seas, set forth in Articles 88 to 115, apply to the EEZ.[31] Within its EEZ, a nation may explore at exploit the natural resources (both living and inanimate) found both in the water and on the seabed, may utilize the natural resources of the area for the production of energy (including wind and wave/current), may establish artificial islands, conduct marine scientific research, pass laws for the preservation and protection of the marine environment, and regulate fishing.[32]

One of the primary purposes behind establishing the EEZ was to clarify the rights of individual nations to control the fish harvests off their shores. The 200-mile limit established by UNCLOS is not an arbitrary number. It is derived from the fact that the most lucrative fishing grounds lie within 200 nautical miles from the coast as this is where the richest phytoplankton (the basic food of fish) pastures lie.[33]

The creation of the EEZ gave coastal nations jurisdiction of approximately 38 million square nautical miles of ocean space. The world's EEZs are estimated to contain about 87% of all of the known and estimated hydrocarbon reserves as well as almost all offshore mineral resources. In addition, the EEZs contain almost 99% of the world's fisheries, which allows nations to work to conserve the oceans vital and limited living resources.[34]

Continental Shelf

Cross sectional map of a continental shelf. Unlike the other boundaries that have been thus far discussed, the continental shelf is a real, naturally-occurring geological formation. It is a gently sloping undersea plain between the above-water portion of a landmass and the deep ocean. The continental shelf extends to what is known as the continental slope, a point at which the land descends further and marks the beginning of the ocean itself. It is host to most of the world's oceanic plant and animal life and plays a vital role in energy production, from offshore oil and gas reserves to renewable energy resources.[35]

When UNCLOS refers to the continental shelf, however, it is using "continental shelf" as a legal term.[36] While the EEZ captures a lot of the continental shelf for many countries, it does not capture all of it. As such, UNCLOS includes provisions for nations to lay claim to a continental shelf that exceeds 200 nautical miles from the baseline by establishing the foot of the continental slope as set forth in Article 76, paragraphs 4-7. These provisions allow for an extension of an additional 150 nautical miles from the baseline or 100 miles from the 2,500 meter depth.[37] Nations exercise over the shelf the sovereign right to explore and exploit the non-living natural resources of the continental shelf as well as the living organisms that live on the seabed itself.[38] The water above the portion of the continental shelf that is not contained within the EEZ remains part of the high seas (as does the airspace above that area).[39] Nations wishing to request an extension of sovereignty over an extended portion of their naturally occurring continental shelf must do so within 10 years of UNCLOS coming into force for that particular nation.[40]

The extension of sovereignty to the extended continental shelf comes with a price. A nation that exploits resources on the continental shelf beyond the 200 nautical mile mark is allowed five years in which to develop and exploit the resources of the shelf without charge. Starting on the sixth year, a nation has to pay 1 percent of the value of the resources produced from the site. The rate of payments increase by 1 percent for each year until the twelfth year and is capped at 7 percent thereafter. Developing nations are exempted from this provision.[41] Revenues generated from these operations are deposited with the International Seabed Authority and equally distributed among national parties to UNCLOS.[42]

High Seas

Map illustrating the high seas. All areas in blue are considered part of the high seas and are not subject to national appropriation.

Waters beyond a nation's EEZ are considered to be the high seas.[43] The high seas are still governed the "freedom of the seas" concept, albeit a modified version. Just as with the classical version, no nation my lay claim to any portion of the high seas.[44] Per the terms of the treaty, "[t]he high seas are open to all States, whether coastal or land-locked."[45] On the high seas, nations are permitted freedom of navigation and overflight, freedom to lay submarine cables and pipelines, freedom to construct artificial islands, freedom of fishing, and freedom of scientific research.[46] Other provisions regarding the high seas include a prohibition on the transport of slaves, piracy, illegal drug trafficking, and the suppression of unauthorized radio or television broadcasting.[47]

The Area

The "Area" is the seabed and ocean floor that is beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.[48] This is the portion of the seabed that is beyond the EEZ or the recognized continental shelf of a country. It would be inaccurate to say that the Area is the seabed underneath the high seas, since the high seas can overlap portions of continental shelf that are subject to national sovereignty. The Area is particularly unique in that UNCLOS designates it and the resources it contains as "the common heritage of mankind."[49] No nation is allowed to lay claim to any part of the Area or its resources. Regarding the resources, "[a]ll rights in the resources of the Area are vested in mankind as a whole...."[50] As a result, companies that wish to exploit the mineral resources of the Area will have to enter into a profit sharing agreement in which the profits derived from mineral resources captured in the Area will be shared with developing nations.

Agencies Created by UNCLOS

In order to administer UNCLOS, the treaty created four bodies to handle specific issues. The following sections discuss the mission of each body and its founding authority.

Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf

The Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf was created to implement Article 76 of the treaty, which is the article which allows for a nation to extend sovereignty over a portion of the continental shelf beyond the limits of the EEZ.[51] The Commission is comprised of 21 members who are specialists in the fields of geology, geophysics, or hydrography and are elected by the Nations Parties to the Convention. Members of the Commission are charged with evaluating data submitted by coastal nation requesting an extension of sovereignty over an extended portion of their naturally occurring continental shelf.[52] The Commission was established and derives its authority from Annex II of the Convention.

International Seabed Authority

Logo for the International Seabed Authority, 'the Authority' The International Seabed Authority is the organization that is responsible for the governance of the Area.[53] Article 156 of the Convention mandates the creation of the Seabed Authority, which is commonly referred to as "the Authority" throughout most of the treaty.[54] All nations that have agreed to be bound by UNCLOS are automatically members of the Authority.[55] The Authority is comprised of three bodies: the Assembly, the Council, and the Secretariat.[56]

The Assembly

The Assembly acts as a legislative organ in which each member nation has one representative.[57] Of the many powers and responsibilities entrusted to the Assembly, one of the most important is the power to decide how revenues derived from deep seabed mining will be distributed. Other powers include the power to set policy regarding activities in the Area and oversight of its management.[58]

The Council

The Council is a body comprised of 36 persons who represent various members of the Authority itself (the nations bound by the treaty). Members of the Council are elected by the Assembly and serve for a term of four years.[59] The Council acts as the executive branch of the Authority and has the power of establishing the specific policies to be pursued by the Authority.[60] Other powers of the Council include establishing subsidiary agencies (as needed) to carry out the functions of the Council, approve or reject work plans related to the Area, oversee the collection of payments made to the Authority, and institute proceedings against a member nation in the Seabed Disputes Chamber (see International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea below).[61]

Within the Council there are two Commissions: the Economic Planning Commission and the Legal and Technical Commission. Each Commission is comprised of members elected by the Council from a list of candidates nominated by the nations that are bound by UNCLOS. Members of either Commission serve for a term of five years and must have no personal financial connections related to exploration or exploitation of resources within the Area.[62]

Members of the Economic Planning Commission are required to have qualifications in the areas of mining, management of mineral resources, international trade, or international economics and it is required that at least two members of the Commission are from developing nations whose mineral exports be the same as those being mined from the seabed.[63] The primary function of the Economic Planning Commission is to expound upon the relationship between the minerals being mined, the effect mining has on global prices for the mineral in question, and the effect changes in price may have on developing nations.[64]

Members of the Legal and Technical Commission are required to have qualifications in the areas of exploration, exploitation, and processing of mineral resources, oceanology, protection of the marine environment, or either economic or legal matters relating to the ocean mining industry.[65] It is the responsibility of the Commission to review written plans for work activities to be conducted in the Area, prepare assessments of the environmental implications of activities in the Area, make recommendations to the Council regarding environmental protection of the Area, and to calculate the production ceiling and issue production authorization on behalf of the Authority.[66]

The Secretariat

The Secretariat of the Authority is comprised of the Secretary-General and his or her staff. The Secretary General is elected for a term of four years. Nominations for Secretary-General are made by the Council and voted on by the Assembly. The Secretary-General serves as the chief administrative officer of the Authority and is required to make an annual report to the Assembly on the work of the Authority.[67]

The Enterprise

Article 170 calls for the formation of an agency called "the Enterprise." The purpose of the Enterprise is to coordinate the exploration and exploitation of resources in the area. Annex IV of the treaty details the composition and governance of the Enterprise, however, since deep seabed mining has yet to start, the Enterprise has never been called into action.

International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea

Annex VI of UNCLOS establishes the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. The Tribunal is comprised of 21 members, no two of which may be from the same member nation.[68] Members of the Tribunal serve for a period of nine years, after which they are eligible for reelection to the Tribunal.[69] The Tribunal has formed a number of Chambers including the Chamber of Summary Procedure, the Chamber for Fisheries Disputed, the Chamber for Marine Environment Disputes, and the Chamber for Maritime Delimitation Disputes.[70] The Tribunal is also the home of the Seabed Disputes Chamber, which is responsible for adjudicating disputes pursuant to Part XI, Section 5 of UNCLOS, which governs settlements of disputes that arise from deep seabed activities.[71]

Environmental Considerations

Although UNCLOS is not an environmental treaty, it frequently addresses environmental concerns. In addition to having an entire section dedicated to the protection and preservation of the marine environment (Part XII), the treaty also contains numerous references to environmental duties and obligations throughout its many articles. The scattered placement of all of the environmental references makes it difficult at times to put together a comprehensive understanding of the duties of member nations and the powers they are granted to enforce the various provisions.

Section 1 of Part XII of UNCLOS sets the tone for a number of the environmental provisions laid out in the treaty. Part XII opens with Article 192: "States have an obligation to protect and preserve the marine environment." This is immediately followed by Article 193: "States have the sovereign right to exploit their natural resources pursuant to their environmental policies," [emphasis added]. Nations are then subsequently charged with creating national law to address various pollution issues and are supposed to employ "the best practicable means at their disposal and in accordance with their capabilities."[72] Article 204 requires states to observe and evaluate the risks posed by pollution to the marine environment. In particular, nations are required to monitor the effects of any activities that they permit or actually engage in.[73]

The following sections examine UNCLOS on various topical issues related to the environment in an attempt to create a comprehensive narrative.

Pollution Prevention (Generally)

Article 195 requires nations to "prevent, reduce and control pollution in the marine environment." Article 195 also prohibits nations from transferring pollution to another nation, either directly or indirectly, or from turning one type of pollution into another. The prohibition on changing one pollutant into another may have impacts on future carbon mitigation schemes such as water-column carbon sequestration or sub-seabed sequestration. For more information, see Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (1972) and the 1996 Protocol.

Part XII of UNCLOS also encourages nations to participate in regional agreements related to the environment and establishes duties of nations to their regional counterparts (see Articles 197-201). Some of the duties that nations owe to other regional nations include the duty to notify of imminent danger to the marine environment from pollution or actual damage from pollution.[74] Nations are encouraged to work together to form regional plans for the preservation of the marine environment as well as to develop contingency plans for responding to pollution incidents and coordinating with one another in data-sharing on regional marine pollution and establishing scientific criteria for the promulgation of regulations regarding marine pollution.[75]

Dumping at Sea

Dumping is defined in Article 1 as "any deliberate disposal of wastes or other matter from vessels, aircraft, platforms or other man-made structures at sea" or the disposal of the vessels, aircraft, platforms, or structure themselves at sea.[76] UNCLOS makes an exemption for the disposal of wastes that are incidental to the normal operations of vessels, aircraft, etc.[77]

Article 210 specifically addresses the issue of dumping and requires nations to enact their own legislation on the issue. Paragraph 6 requires that national laws and regulations be at least as effective as global rules and standards. These global rules and standards are articulated in the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter , which was concluded in London in 1972, the year prior to the start of UNCLOS III.[78]

Coastal nations are recognized as the only authority that can approve any dumping activities within its territorial sea, its EEZ, or on its continental shelf. Nations are given the exclusive authority to authorize or deny such activities. Nations who authorize dumping activities are required to give consideration as to how other nations may be adversely affected by dumping activities in areas governed the local nation.[79]

There are three ways in which anti-dumping measures can be enforced. The first means of enforcement is by a coastal nation, which has the right to enforce anti-dumping measures within its territorial sea, its EEZ, or its continental shelf. The second means of enforcement is enforcement by Flag Nations, which may always enforce their own laws against any violator flying its flag regardless of where the offense occurred. The third and final means of enforcing anti-dumping measures is enforcement by a the third party, which would be a nation in which ships take on wastes within its territory. If multiple nations appear to have jurisdiction over an issue of dumping, only one is required to take on the individual case.[80]

Fishing Rights

Many of UNCLOS's articles on fishing rights relate to who has the right to control and exploit various fish stocks. While these articles are not primarily environmental in nature, they do contain provisions on regulating overfishing, which is itself an environmental concern. The placement of these articles in Part V (governing the EEZ) and Part VII (governing the high seas) as opposed to Part XII (governing environmental protection) may be read as an indicator of the economic and territorial focus associated with protecting sovereign rights over fish stocks as opposed to an environmentally centered approach.

In the EEZ

Coastal nations have primary control over the fish stocks in their EEZ. As part of this primary control, the coastal nation is required to maintain the existing stock and protect it from over-exploitation. As a part of that responsibility, coastal nation get to determine the maximum allowable catch for a given species.[81] While coastal nation are required to monitor and maintain fish stocks within their EEZ, they are also required to provide for the maximum exploitation possible that will not threaten the population in question.[82] To that end, coastal nation are required to determine not only how much of a specific species can be caught, but how much the nation itself has the capacity to catch. In instances where the nation cannot catch the full maximum allowable catch, the coastal nation is obliged to give other nations access to the surplus.[83]

Fish, however, do not recognize manmade boundaries. In recognition of this fact, UNCLOS provides special rules for species that cross various types of boundaries. In instances where one species of fish migrate within the EEZ's of multiple coastal nation, those nations are obligated to come to agreement on the conservation and development of such stocks.[84] Some species are considered "highly migratory" (see UNCLOS Annex I for a full list of highly migratory species). Nations engaged in fishing for these highly migratory species are required to cooperate with one another to maintain appropriate levels of these stock and to make sure that they are not overfished.[85]

Another consideration taken into account by UNCLOS are fish species that migrate between internal waters and marine waters as part of their breeding cycle. Anadromous species, those that spawn in fresh water and later migrate toward marine waters, are primarily the responsibility of the nation in whose rivers the fish originate.[86] The nation of origin is allowed to determine the allowable catch for these species.[87] For catadromous species, those that live in fresh water and migrate to marine waters to spawn, are again primarily the responsibility of the coastal nation.[88] Harvesting of these fish is limited to the EEZ. In cases in which the species travels through the EEZ of multiple countries, those countries must work together to establish rational management of the species.[89]

On the High Seas

All nations have the right to fish on the high seas subject to their treaty obligations.[90] Along with this right, nations have a duty to take measures to ensure the conservation of living resources on the high seas.[91] Nations who are fishing for the same species or different species within the same area of the high seas are supposed to work together to conserve and protect the species from over-exploitation.[92] In determining maximum allowable catch, nations are to take measures to maintain or restore populations of harvested species at levels which can produce the maximum sustainable yield and they are to take into consideration the effects on species either associated with or dependent on the harvested species.[93]

Marine Mammals

Coastal nations are allowed to pass laws more stringent than those for fishing regarding the harvesting of marine mammals.[94]

Biodiversity

Article 196 requires nations to "take all measures necessary" to prevent the intentional or accidental introduction of non-native species to a new part of the marine environment. Regarding the introduction of alien species the prohibition is on non-native animals that "may cause significant and harmful changes [to the local environment]."[95] It is hard, however, to know exactly what species will cause either significant or harmful changes to the environment. For more information see Alien Species and Aquatic Invasive Species.

Land Based Pollution

Article 207 requires nations to "adopt laws and regulations to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from land-based sources...."[96] Article 207 specifically calls upon nations to regulate pollution that comes into the ocean from rivers, estuaries, pipelines, and outfall structures, which are the primary sources of land based pollution in the marine environment. Paragraph 3 of Article 207 also encourages nations to harmonize their policies on a regional level. This Article has, however, been criticized as being weak since it lacks and enforcement mechanism and it relies upon local legislatures to set their own priorities for land-based sources of pollution.[97] UNCLOS does address enforcement of land-based pollution measures in Article 213 by saying "States shall enforce their [own] laws and regulations adopted in accordance with Article 207...."[98]

Atmospheric Based Pollution

Article 212 requires nations to adopt laws and regulations to prevent atmospheric pollution that will result in pollution to the marine environment. Article 222 compels nations to enforce these measures once passed.

Pollution from Ships

Article 211 requires nations to pass laws and regulations governing pollution from ships flying the nation's flag. Article 211 also allows nations to pass laws and regulations aimed at preventing and controlling pollution from ships that enter both their ports and their territorial seas. In both cases, the nation must notify the international community and the regulations cannot abridge the right of innocent passage.[99] Nations may also pass laws regulating pollution from ships in their EEZ, provided that the regulations conform to international rules and standards.[100] Under certain circumstances nations may be permitted to enact more stringent rules or regulations, provided that they can prove a need or special circumstance exists for which international rules and standards are not sufficient.[101]

Enforcement

Enforcement of the provisions of UNCLOS can be a complicated issue as multiple nations may appear to have jurisdiction over a single issue. What happens, for example, if a vessel flying the flag of one nation is accused of dumping in the territorial sea of another? What if the same ship was caught dumping on the high seas by a ship flying the flag of another nation? The following sections attempt to explain how various portions of the environmental provisions of UNCLOS are enforced and by whom.

Enforcement by the Flag Nation

Nations have vast powers of enforcement over vessels flying their flag. Flag nations are required to keep a register of ships which fly their flag and assume jurisdiction of those ships and crew under international law.[102] Flag nations are responsible for adopting laws and regulations targeted at preventing and controlling pollution from ships which fly their flag and are to provide for the effective enforcement of such laws, regardless of where a violation occurs.[103]

Flag nations are required, at the request of another nation, to investigate alleged violations committed by vessels flying their flag. If the nation believes that a violation has occurred, the nation has a duty to promptly institute proceedings in accordance with the its laws.[104] Flag nations are to notify the requesting nation and any relevant international organizations of any actions taken and their eventual outcome.[105]

Flag nations also have the ability to halt proceedings against one of its vessels on charges related to the prevention of pollution under Article 228, provided that: 1) the violation did not occur in the territorial sea of the nation instituting proceedings, 2) the flag nation takes over the proceedings within six months of the date the proceedings were begun, 3) the case is not one of major damage to the coastal nation, and 4) the flag nation does not have a history of repeatedly disregarding its obligations to enforce the applicable international rules regarding violations committed by its vessels.[106]

Flag nations are also obligated to make sure that ships flying their flag meet the requirements of seaworthiness.[107] In the event a ship enters the port of a foreign nation and it is found to not be in a seaworthy condition, the port nation is obliged to detain the vessel and require it to be repaired prior to its continuing its voyage.[108]

Enforcement by Port Nations

Port nations have the authority to enforce their own laws with regards to violations that occur in their territorial sea and EEZ, pursuant to Article 220(1). Customary law has for many years recognized the right of a port nation to exercise jurisdiction over a vessel that docks in its ports. Under customary international law, a nation does not have to grant access to its ports and, as such, when ships enter port they voluntarily submit themselves to the sovereignty of the port nation.[109]

Article 218 give port nations new authority with which they may investigate and, when sufficient evidence exists, prosecute violations of UNCLOS's prohibitions against pollution.[110] If the violation occurs on the high seas, the port nation may undertake the investigation and initiate prosecution itself.[111] If the violation occurred in the territorial sea or internal waters of another nation, the port nation may only begin an investigation and/or prosecution at the request of either: 1) the nation in which the violation occurred; 2) the flag nation; or 3) a nation that has itself been damaged or threatened by the discharge violation. In the event that the port nation is one that has been damaged or threatened by a discharge violation that has occurred outside its own territorial sea, it has the ability to initiate an investigation and prosecution itself.[112]

It is important to note that this ability is derived solely on the basis of treaty and not from customary international law.[113] Also, it is important to note that the flag nation may still take the prosecution for itself, per Article 228 as discussed above. In the event that the flag nation does take over the prosecution of such a violation, the port nation is obligated to drop the charges against the foreign vessel upon the conclusion of the proceedings by the flag nation.[114] Port nations that opt to impose penalties on foreign vessels must do so within three years from the date that the violation was committed.[115]

Port nations also have the right to stop vessels from proceeding from port if they are found to not meet the international rules and standards for seaworthiness and thereby threaten the marine environment. Nations may only allow the vessel to proceed to the nearest repair yard and, upon completion of all necessary repairs, must allow the ship to continue on its voyage.[116]

Enforcement by Coastal Nations (Not Acting as Port Nations)

The powers of a coastal nations to enforce various anti-pollution measures varies depending on the location of both the suspected violation and the location of the ship at the time the coastal nation chooses to act its suspicion. In cases where ships are currently navigating in the territorial sea of a coastal nation and it is suspected that a violation of either international anti-pollution laws or the coastal nation's laws has occurred while the vessel was navigating through the territorial sea, the coastal nation has the authority to undertake a physical inspection of the vessel and may institute proceedings against it. Note that there are a few criteria that must be met. First, the ship must have committed the violation in the territorial sea of the coastal nation and secondly, the ship must still be in the territorial sea of the coastal nation. Only then can agents of the coastal nation undertake an investigation of the ship.[117]

For suspected violations that occur in the EEZ of the coastal nation, the power and authority of that nation is not as broad. In cases where a suspected violation has occurred in the EEZ and the vessel is still in either the territorial sea or the EEZ, the coastal nation is permitted to request information regarding the ship (specifically its identity, port of registry, its last and next port of call, and other information the coastal nation deems necessary to establish whether or not a violation has occurred).[118] Should the ship be unwilling to supply that information, or if the information supplied is clearly false, only then can the coastal nation undertake a physical investigation of the vessel.[119] Here the requirements are that the suspected violation occurs in the EEZ, the vessel in question must still be in either the territorial sea or the EEZ, a request must be issues for information, and only after a failure of the ship to comply with the request of the coastal nation may that nation undertake a physical investigation of the ship.

The preceding paragraphs only cover suspected violations. If, however, there is "clear objective evidence" that a vessel currently navigating in a costal nation's territorial sea or EEZ has committed a violation in the EEZ "resulting in a discharge causing major damage or [the] threat of major damage to the coastline or related interests of the coastal State, ... that State may... institute proceedings, including detention of the vessel."[120] In order for the coastal nation to take such measures, there has to be clear evidence of the violation occurring, the violation must result in major damage to the coastline or the interests and resources of the nation or the threat of major damage, and the vessel must still be within the territorial sea or the EEZ.

General Provisions Regarding Enforcement

UNCLOS provides some general requirements regarding nations enforcing their laws or international law against ships from another nation. First, any enforcement measures taken against a foreign vessel can only be conducted by ships that are clearly marked and identifiable as being in the service of the enforcing nation's government.[121] When engaging in enforcement activities, agents of the coastal nation have an obligation to not endanger the safety of navigation of other vessels and also to not bring any detained vessel to an unsafe port.[122] In the event that a nation takes action against a foreign vessel, the nation has a duty to inform the ship's flag nation of what measures were taken.[123] With regard to the prevention of pollution, vessels owned and operated by a foreign nation on governmental non-commercial missions are protected by sovereign immunity, a principle that shields these vessels from liability.[124]

On the matter of assessing penalties against a foreign vessel, UNCLOS states that only monetary penalties may be imposed regarding violations committed by vessels outside the territorial sea of the coastal nation. In instances where a violation has occurred within the territorial sea, monetary penalties are the only type of penalties that may be imposed unless the vessel has committed an act of willful and serious pollution.[125] UNCLOS also provides that civil proceedings may be instituted against a vessel of a foreign nation regardless of what criminal proceedings have already taken place or what penalties have been assessed against the vessel.[126]

Scientific Explortation

All nations have the right to conduct scientific research in the oceans, provided that the research is 1) conducted exclusively for peaceful purposes; 2) conducted with acceptable scientific methods; 3) does not interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea; and 4) conducted with respect to the other terms of the UNCLOS treaty, including those pertaining to protection and preservation of the marine environment.[127] Coastal nations have the exclusive right to regulate, authorize, and conduct scientific research in their territorial sea, which means that scientific research within the territorial sea can only be conducted with the expressed consent of the nation.[128]

Foreign nations that wish to conduct scientific research in the EEZ or on the continental shelf of another nation may do so, but only with the consent of the other nation. Nations may reject a requests by a foreign nation for access to their EEZ or continental shelf if the project: 1) is of direct significance for the exploration and exploitation of natural resources (living or non-living, unless the research is to be conducted on the continental shelf more than 200 nautical miles from the baselines); 2) involves drilling into the continental shelf, the use of explosives, or the introduction of harmful substances into the marine environment; 3) involves the construction or use of artificial islands; or 4) if either the proposal provided to the nation regarding the research was inaccurate or if the requesting nation has outstanding obligations to the coastal nation for prior research projects.[129]

Foreign nations wishing to conduct scientific research off the coast of another nation must inform the coastal nation of the nature and objectives of the project, the methods to be used, the precise location where the research is to take place, the timeframe for the research, information regarding the organization conducting the actual research, and to what extent the coastal nation may take part in the project.[130] While undertaking scientific research off the coast of a nation, the research team from the visiting nation must guarantee the right of the coastal nation to participate or be represented in the research project without obligation to contribute to the costs of the project. The visiting research team from the foreign nation is also obliged to provide the coastal nation with preliminary and final reports as well as access to all data and samples taken during the course of the project. Visiting research teams from foreign nations must also notify the coastal nation of any changes to the agreed upon plans for conducting the research and must also remove any and all equipment once the experiment is completed (unless another agreement has been made with the coastal nation regarding removal).[131]

Present Status and United States Interpretation

Presently there are 160 nations that have ratified UNCLOS. The United States, however, is not one of them. When the treaty was originally concluded in 1982, then President Ronald Reagan chose not to sign the treaty on the grounds that the proposed international seabed regime governing the mining of the seabed would both hamper the development of seabed mineral resources and would be contrary to principles of free enterprise.[132] Even though the President Reagan opted not to sign the treaty, in 1982 he issued an Ocean Policy Statement announcing that the United States both accepted and would act in accordance with the Convention on all issues save those of deep seabed mining.[133] In the same proclamation, President Reagan created the EEZ for the United States.[134] In making that proclamation, the United States acquired the largest EEZ in the world, one that stretched off the United States mainland, Alaska, and Hawaii, as well as island territories in both the Atlantic and Pacific. In 1988, President Reagan acted again to expand the territorial se from 3 nautical miles to 12 nautical miles. The final change in the ocean boundaries of the United States occurred in 1999 when then President William (Bill) Clinton established the contiguous zone.[135]

Criticisms

While generally hailed as a monumental achievement in the arena of international law, UNCLOS has also received its fair share of criticism. One of the most often heard criticisms is the treaty's reliance upon national legislation to implement its provisions. The problem becomes one in which the treaty must rely on national legislatures to set, for example, pollution provisions as a priority on the legislative agenda. While the benefit of such a scheme is that it allows the national autonomy, the weakness is that nations may not view such legislation as a priority. National administration of the law has also come under criticism, as some countries have shown a willingness to excuse violations that have happened abroad. One result of such weak national enforcement and regulation is the emergence of "flags of convenience" nations.[136]

Another criticism related to UNCLOS relates to the jurisdictional breakdown of sovereignty. The way in which control of ocean resources has been divided does not reflect the natural order of the marine environment. Provisions that govern ensuring that fish stocks are not over-depleted, for example, divide control and conservation measures based on distance from the shores as opposed to the natural order of the ecosystem. These divisions have been accused of hampering cohesive management of resources if favor of respecting national sovereignty.[137]

And then there is the criticism that kept the United States from signing UNCLOS, that of the deep seabed mining regime. As was already mentioned, the profit sharing provisions related to deep seabed mining have been hailed by some as being antithetical to principles of free-market capitalism.

Unmanned Craft Monitors Ocean "Dead Zones"

2010-10-14T04:02:00.000+09:00

【出展リンク】：

http://www.livescience.com/common/media/video/player.php?videoRef=LS_091113_Pacific_Dead_Zone

Ocean "Dead zones" along the Washington and Oregon coasts are threatening critical U.S. fishing areas. These oxygen- depleted regions, that lose virtually all of their marine life in the summer, are expanding, and new ones are appearing.
Credit: NSF

台風２３号来襲時においてナウファス観測史上最高波を室津（高知県室戸市）で観測　～有義波高Ｈ1/3＝１３．５５ｍを観測！～

2010-10-11T13:43:00.002+09:00

【出展リンク】：

http://www.mlit.go.jp/kisha/kisha04/11/111022_.html

国土交通省

台風２３号来襲時においてナウファス観測史上最高波を室津（高知県室戸市）で観測
～有義波高Ｈ1/3＝１３．５５ｍを観測！～

平成１６年１０月２２日
＜問い合わせ先＞
港湾局環境・技術課
（内線46622）

TEL：03-5253-8111(代表)

国土交通省港湾局では、我が国の沿岸波浪を各地方整備局、北海道開発局及び沖縄総合事務局の港湾関係事務所を通じ、1970年以降継続して観測しています。2004年10月現在で図のように54観測地点で観測された全国沿岸の波浪情報は、リアルタイムで独立行政法人港湾空港技術研究所（旧港湾技術研究所）へ伝送され、集中処理・解析を行っています。

このナウファス波浪観測情報はインターネット公開（http://www.mlit.go.jp/kowan/nowphas/）するとともに、気象庁による波浪予報に活用され海の安全に貢献するとともに、蓄積された長期間のデータの統計解析を通じて、港湾・海岸・空港事業の計画・調査・設計・施工をはじめとした、沿岸域の開発・利用・防災に幅広く活用されています。

今回の台風２３号来襲時には、ナウファス波浪観測において、室津沖1.5ｋｍ、水深26.8ｍの観測地点では、有義波H１／３＝１３．５５ｍを記録し、この記録は、ナウファス観測史上最高波を記録していることが判明しました。
なお、室津波浪観測値の経時変化については、別添資料のとおりです。

（参考）
室戸岬沖13ｋｍ、水深100ｍに設置してある国内唯一のＧＰＳ津波計（東京大学地震研究所、（独）港湾空港技術研究所、（財）阪神淡路大震災記念協会人と防災未来センター、日立造船技術研究所の共同開発）によると10月20日14:00～16:00にかけて有義波H１／３＝15.00m、最大波Hmax＝26.15ｍを記録しています。この記録は、ナウファス及びGPS津波計における波浪観測史上最高波となります。
※GPS津波計は、平成１６年１０月開催の第６回国土技術開発賞・最優秀賞を受賞しています。

ナウファス（全国港湾海洋波浪情報網：NOWPHAS：Nationwide Ocean Wave information network for Ports and HArbourS）とは、国土交通省港湾局、各地方整備局、北海道開発局、沖縄総合事務局、国土技術政策総合研究所および独立行政法人港湾空港技術研究所の相互協力のもとに構築・運営されている我が国沿岸の波浪情報ネットワークという。

有義波とは、ある期間で得られた波形を個々の波高に分解し、大きい順に並びかえ、上位1/3について平均した値をいう。その手法から1/3最大波高ともいう。目視の波浪観測結果とよく一致することで知られている。また、天気予報に示される値です。

別紙１
別紙２
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Acrobat Readerをダウンロードしても、PDFファイルが正常に表示されない場合はこちらをご参照下さい。

（ダウンロード）

All Rights Reserved, Copyright (C) 2004, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport

Floating,Deepwater oil & gas rig.

2010-10-02T05:38:00.000+09:00

【出展リンク】：http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c7_eyMXDkWI

saycheese10times | 2008年09月13日
This drilling rig actually floats.

カテゴリ:科学と技術

タグ:
Oil Gas Drilling environment

Oil drilling pipeline construction rock drill animation video 3d

2010-10-02T05:28:00.001+09:00

【出展リンク】：http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x74-E990S0k

easywaytv | 2008年08月03日

Animation Video bohrgerät 3 D animation vermeer direction drrill Ditch witch case Kobelco esig

カテゴリ:

科学と技術

Largest Aquarium in the world - Churaumi - Okinawa

2010-09-20T20:26:00.000+09:00

【出展リンク】：

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WlmEVxIk7l4

Largest Aquarium in the world - Churaumi - Okinawa

mpapaj | 2007年05月08日

Here it is -- the whale shark -- in Okinawa, Japan.

カテゴリ:

ペットと動物

評価の高いコメント

kwalte45
6 か月前 73
this guy is a fully functioning retard
Kleptomania
1 か月前 8
Y'know, listening to him say Steve Irwin brand of rays, I don't think he actually meant an insult. I think he really was just wondering if those were the types of ray that Steve Irwin died of. That's what it sounded like. Perhaps he just worded it wrong?

すべて見る

すべてのコメント (171)

Rikku017
1日前
Steve Erwin brand? wow...thats just horrible.
wafflegamer01
4 日前
@Lilbrobigfro lol...it only weighs about 4-5 thousand pounds....and he thought it was a manta ray lol......he's got no idea what he's talking about
twistedscarlett
4 日前
i just logged in to insult you, u stupid fucking un-educated wife beater. Steve Irwin brand?! that man was a father to 2 very young kids... ur a dick.
Rick0dB
6 日前
@emeljipuroo that would be awesome, jsut one guppy in that tank lol
Lilbrobigfro
1週間前
Thumbs up for 20,000 pounds.
emeljipuroo
1週間前
i wish my gold fish could live their....
Ratkill
1週間前
why does cool-aid take a freakin gallon of sugar to make
shinobiung
2 週間前
steve irwin was a terrorist supporter.
nitehawk1401
3 週間前
コメントが削除されました
goestyou
3 週間前
thank you sir, u just provoked me into logging into youtube and commmenting: FUCKING AMERICUNTS =)

コメントをすべて表示 »

Kuroshio Sea - 2nd largest aquarium tank in the world - (song is Please ...

2010-09-20T20:25:00.000+09:00

【出展リンク】： http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u7deClndzQw

theradblog | 2009年07月15日

Shot by: http://jonrawlinson.com
Follow me on Twitter: http://twitter.com/jonrawlinson

The music is "Please don't go" by Barcelona. iTunes: http://bit.ly/1zAVu
Barcelona's website: http://www.myspace.com/barcelona

This was shot at the Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium in Japan. http://www.kaiyouhaku.com/en/

Download the desktop wallpaper: http://bit.ly/19rTC5

Buy the album Absolutes by Barcelona on the iTunes store: http://bit.ly/o57OL

The main tank called the 'Kuroshio Sea' holds 7,500-cubic meters (1,981,290 gallons) of water and features the world's second largest acrylic glass panel, measuring 8.2 meters by 22.5 meters with a thickness of 60 centimeters. Whale sharks and manta rays are kept amongst many other fish species in the main tank.

WE MUST PROTECT OUR OCEANS!

This was shot using a Canon 5DMKII with a 28-135mm lens.

You should visit my website: http://jonrawlinson.com

カテゴリ:

旅行とイベント

Surf’s Up　：　The New York Times

2010-09-20T11:19:00.000+09:00

【出展リンク】：

http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/19/books/review/Morris-t.html?pagewanted=all

Surf’s Up

By HOLLY MORRIS

Published: September 17, 2010

REPRINTS

What’s as tall as a small office building, snaps large vessels in half and inspires a small tribe of brethren to strap on fiberglass and launch themselves into an unholy maelstrom for a glimpse of transcendence? Giant waves. The bigger the better — or way worse — depending on who’s talking.

Enlarge This Image

Andrew Ingram, The Cape Times

This Singaporean ship, pounded off South Africa, later sank.

THE WAVE

In Pursuit of the Rogues, Freaks, and Giants of the Ocean

By Susan Casey

Illustrated. 326 pp. Doubleday. $27.95

Multimedia

Excerpt: ‘The Wave’(randomhouse.com)

Author and Surfer to Share in Proceeds of Waves Book (May 9, 2007)

Enlarge This Image

Karsten Peterson

A freighter in heavy seas.

Susan Casey, the editor in chief of O: The Oprah Magazine and the author of “The Devil’s Teeth: A True Story of Obsession and Survival Among America’s Great White Sharks,”examines big waves from every angle, and goes in deep with those who know the phenomenon most intimately: mariners, wave scientists and extreme surfers.

Casey makes a convincing, entertaining case (nifty cliffhangers and all) that there is a heretofore little-known monster in our midst. Until very recently giant waves lived only as lore. There was the story of the Tlingit Indian woman who returned from berry picking to find her entire village disappeared. The polar explorer Ernest Shackletononce reported narrowly surviving “a mighty upheaval of the ocean,” the biggest wave he’d seen in 26 years of seafaring. But witnesses of a 100-foot wave at close range rarely lived to tell, and experts dismissed stories about these waves because they seemingly violated basic principles of ocean physics. It was only 10 years ago, when the British research ship Discovery was caught in a punishing North Sea storm, that legend became scientific fact. The battered ship straggled into dock, and grateful scientists unlashed themselves from their bunks, tiptoeing around bashed furniture and shattered glass. They discovered that despite the Armageddon-like conditions, the ship’s research collecting devices had kept on working. And indeed they recorded seas 60 feet high, with some wave faces spiking at 90 feet and higher. The evidence was in, and soon became overwhelming as satellites began confirming that rogue waves thrust out of the world’s oceans with some frequency.

They do exist; now the question is, how? Strangely, in many ways we have a better understanding of subatomic specks than we do of these behemoths. In the most general sense, waves are the “original primordial force,” Casey says. “Anywhere there’s energy in motion there are waves, from the farthest corners of the universe down to cells in your eyeball,” and describing wave behavior has long been a staple of math and physics. But ocean waves, generated in such a vast and chaotic environment and subject to numerous variables, have been notoriously difficult to model or predict.

For sure, rogue waves are wily creatures that play with laws of physics, logic and gravity, and as it turns out, so are the people who are dedicated to them, including surfers. Casey blends her reporting on seafarers and scientists with a portrait of tow-surfing, and in particular, its best-known purveyor, Laird Hamilton. Using Jet Skis and water-skiing tow ropes and working in pairs, one person tows another into position at 30 miles per hour; the surfer lets go and rockets onto the face of waves far too big and too fast to catch by the conventional paddling. The technique allows surfers to ride enormous waves, sometimes miles offshore.

If all goes right, the rider gets “inside the barrel, a place that surfers regard with reverence,” where “light and water and motion add up to something transcendent.” But it often goes wrong, resulting in horrific crashes. Tow surfers endure broken necks, cracked femurs and punctured lungs, though, to date, surprisingly few fatalities. As for stitches, Hamilton “stopped counting at 1,000.”

Casey’s connection with Hamilton is her reliable long suit in “The Wave,” and she clocks significant time with him near his home in Hawaii and jetting around the world on the “global scavenger hunt” of surfers in search of huge waves. At the airport in Tahiti, on the eve of a big break, she describes this pack as “a sea of tans, tattoos, testosterone and nerves stretched tight as wire.” Hamilton’s presence rattled the other surfers; if he was there “they all knew, the waves would be serious.” Depending on one’s perspective, Hamilton is either a surf prophet or a madman.

The other wave elites are the brainy scientists who are working to create better climate models and forecasts. Their presence at the 10th International Workshop and Wave Hindcasting and Forecasting and Coastal Hazard Symposium in Hawaii temporarily tripled “the North Shore’s per capita I.Q.,” Casey notes.

She pushes the scientists on the big question: Will global warming lead to stormier oceans and bigger waves? With varying degrees of hesitation — because the data is not in to confirm a long-term trend, not because they are global- warming deniers — the answer is a resounding yes. (Though, as one attendee pointed out, “you’re not going to be able to prove it until it’s too late.”)

Scientists do know, however, that average wave heights rose by more than 25 percent between the 1960s and the 1990s, and insurance records document a 10 percent surge in maritime disasters in recent years. From 1990 to 1998 alone 126 vessels were lost, along with more than 600 lives.

The future most likely portends meaner hurricanes, freakier waves, higher ocean levels and dramatic geologic events that will create devastating tsunamis. Given that 60 percent of the world’s population lives within 30 miles of a coastline, wave science is suddenly vitalscience, and the experts are keenly aware that there are levees, oil rigs, shorelines, ships and millions of lives at stake.

The relationship Casey builds between investigating big waves nautically and scientifically — and riding them — feels at times like a marriage of convenience: not entirely sympatico, but by and large the partners hold their own. Casey is fluent in “gnarly” and proficient in “wonk,” and she writes lucidly so the rest of us can come along for the ride. Her wonderfully vivid, kinetic narrative only occasionally groans under the weight of too many Wild Surf stories, and she offers a prescient vision of watery perils — and sometimes, bittersweet triumphs.

In December 2007, at a break called “Egypt” in Maui, Hamilton and Brett Lickle accomplished tow-surfing’s equivalent of climbing Everest when they managed to ride a freakish swell of 100-foot waves. They survived that terrifying day, but only barely. After successfully riding one of these powerhouses, Lickle had his leg sashimied top to bottom, turning the thundering whitewater red. As he bled and neared death, a Herculean rescue effort by Hamilton saved him. The price of the day was high. An emotional retelling by Hamilton reveals he may have glimpsed something he fears more than death: “being pounded so bad that psychologically you don’t recover.” Lickle has never tow-surfed giant waves again.

Amid the images of demolition, Casey hangs on to the magic and beauty of waves, “always out there, racing toward an uncharted finish line, as uncountable as the stars in the sky, as present as your next breath.” Humanity most definitely needs to face the waves, to find a way to grapple with their ferocity and potential. Will we rise to the challenge, or get pummeled? For now, big-wave surfing legend Greg Noll chooses to huff the force: “That rush! . . . When you blow down the side of a wave and the thing’s growling at you and snorting and all that power and fury and you don’t know whether you’re gonna be alive 10 seconds from now or not, it’s as heavy an experience as sex!”

Holly Morris is the author of “Adventure Divas” and a presenter on the PBS series “Globe Trekker.”

A version of this review appeared in print on September 19, 2010, on page BR11 of the Sunday Book Review.

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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY IMPLEMENTING AGREEMENT ON OCEAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

2010-09-17T21:13:00.000+09:00

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY
IMPLEMENTING AGREEMENT ON OCEAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

http://www.iea-oceans.org/index.asp

Ocean Energy Systems

Ocean Energy Systems Implementing Agreement aims to facilitate and co-ordinate ocean energy research, development and demonstration through international co-operation and information exchange, leading to the deployment and commercialisation of sustainable, efficient, reliable, cost-competitive and environmentally sound ocean energy technologies.

he OES-IA, whose formal name is the Implementing Agreement for a Co-operative Programme on Ocean Energy Systems, functions within a framework created by the International Energy Agency (IEA). Views, findings and publications of the OES-IA do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the IEA Secretariat or of all its individual member countries.

＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝

http://www.iea-oceans.org/_fich/6/Poster_Ocean_Energy.pdf

INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY | IMPLEMENTING AGREEMENT ON OCEAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝

http://www.iea-oceans.org/_fich/6/Newsletter13_April2010.pdf

8th European W ave and Tidal Energy Conference

＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝

International Energy Agency
Implementing Agreement
on Ocean Energy Systems

http://www.iea-oceans.org/_fich/6/Annual_Report_2009_v2.pdf

Global Ocean Development, Let us create the future with hope.

Renewable Energy

気仙沼市津波 Footage of the tsunami that hit Kesennuma City in Japan

東北地方の港湾における被災状況について（現地調査速報）：国土交通省

日本の発展について、ささやかな♡ヤマト姫♡の★夢と希望

!!TSUNAMI ROARS ASHORE!! 2011

Japan Earthquake: Helicopter aerial view video of giant tsunami waves

First Post-Oil Spill Deepwater Drilling Permit Approved

The Deepwater Horizon Accident: What Happened and Why?

Wave Energy

"Here comes the wind" Cape Wind Hearings

JFK - We choose to go to the Moon, full length

Para Ti Amiga Mia

The website for the offshore oil and gas industry

Deepwater Gulf of Mexico oil reserves and production

United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 1982

Unmanned Craft Monitors Ocean "Dead Zones"

台風２３号来襲時においてナウファス観測史上最高波を室津（高知県室戸市）で観測 ～有義波高Ｈ1/3＝１３．５５ｍを観測！～

Floating,Deepwater oil & gas rig.

Oil drilling pipeline construction rock drill animation video 3d

カテゴリ:

タグ:

Largest Aquarium in the world - Churaumi - Okinawa

Largest Aquarium in the world - Churaumi - Okinawa

カテゴリ:

タグ:

評価の高いコメント

すべてのコメント (171)

Kuroshio Sea - 2nd largest aquarium tank in the world - (song is Please ...

カテゴリ:

タグ:

Surf’s Up ： The New York Times

Surf’s Up

By HOLLY MORRIS

Published: September 17, 2010

Andrew Ingram, The Cape Times

THE WAVE

In Pursuit of the Rogues, Freaks, and Giants of the Ocean

Multimedia

Related

Author and Surfer to Share in Proceeds of Waves Book (May 9, 2007)

Karsten Peterson

A version of this review appeared in print on September 19, 2010, on page BR11 of the Sunday Book Review.

Ads by Googlewhat's this?GoPro® Surf Hero CameraWorld's #1 Surf Camera. 100' Waterproof, Wide 170º, 5MP, HDwww.GoProCamera.com/SurfRelated SearchesOceansGet E-Mail AlertsTidal Waves and TsunamisGet E-Mail AlertsSurfingGet E-Mail AlertsCase Get E-Mail Alerts

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INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY IMPLEMENTING AGREEMENT ON OCEAN ENERGY SYSTEMS

台風２３号来襲時においてナウファス観測史上最高波を室津（高知県室戸市）で観測　～有義波高Ｈ1/3＝１３．５５ｍを観測！～

Surf’s Up　：　The New York Times